Maricham-Black Pepper (Piper nigrum) Part 1
Mareecham-Black
Pepper (Piper nigrum) Part 1
Introduction
Maricha, maricham,
black pepper (Piper nigrum) is
regarded as the “king of spice”. It
is incredibly popular among spices since ancient times. This flowering vine is
cultivated for its fruit, known as ‘Peppercorn’ which is dried and used as
spice and seasoning.
Black pepper has been
known to Indian cooking since 2000 BC. Black pepper was very popular in India
since Chera dynasty of Tamil and Malabar Coast (now the state of Kerala). The
lost ancient port city of Muziris in Kerala famous for exporting black pepper
gets mentioned in a number of classical historical sources. Black pepper or
peppercorns being steeply/highly prized trade goods were known as “black gold”
and were used for barter trading. The legacy of this barter trade remains in
some Western legal systems that recognize the term “peppercorn rent”
The ancient history of
black pepper is often interlinked and confused with that of long pepper,
Pippali (Piper longum). In fact the
popularity of long pepper, Pippali (Piper
longum) did not entirely decline until the discovery of the New World and of
chili peppers.
Before the 16th
century, pepper grown in Southeast Asia was traded with China. Following the
British hegemony in India, all of the black pepper found in Europe, the Middle
East and North Africa was traded from Malabar region.
Little is known about
the use of black pepper in ancient Egypt and how it reached the Nile from South
Asia. Black pepper was found stuffed in the nostrils of the third pharaoh,
Ramesses II, placed there as part of the mummification rituals shortly after
his death in 1213 BC.
Saint Aldhelm a seventh-century
Bishop of Sherborne sheds some light on the role of black pepper in England at
that time:
I
am black on the outside, clad in a wrinkled cover,
Yet
within I bear a burning marrow.
I
season delicacies, the banquets of kings, and the luxuries of the table
Both
the sauces and tenderized meats of the kitchen
But
you will find in me no quality of any worth
Unless
your bowels have been rattled by my gleaming marrow
It is commonly believed
that during the Middle Ages pepper was used to conceal the taste of rotten
meat. But no evidence supports this claim. In the Middle Ages black pepper was
a luxury item, affordable only to the wealthy.
It is possible that
black pepper was known in China for quite a long time for it was called as
“Jujiagor (sauce-tablet)”. Marco Polo testifies to pepper’s popularity in China
in the 13th century.
The word pepper has roots in the
Sanskrit word pippali for long
pepper. Ancient Greek and Latin turned pippali
into the Greek peperi and then
into the Latin piper. The Romans used
these names both for long pepper and black pepper, erroneously believing that
both came from the same plant.
Today’s “pepper” is derived from the Old
English pipor and from Latin ‘piper’ which is derived from Romanian Piper Italian Pepe, Dutch peper, German
Pfeffer and French Poivre. People have also used ‘pepper’
in a figurative sense to mean “spirit” or “energy” at least as far back as
1840s. In the 20th century, this is shortened to “pep” [1]
Other Names
Taxonomic Name: Piper nigrum,
Piper trioicum, Muldera
multinervis Miq, Piper aromaticum
Lam, Piper baccatum C. DC, Piper colonum C. Presl, Piper glyphicum Hoffmgg. ex. Kunth, Piper malabarense C. DC, Piper rotundum Noronha
Sanskrit: Mareecham,
Ushanm, Ullagh, Krishn
English: Black
peppr
Assamese: Jaluk,
Jalook, Gulmorich
Bengali: Kala
Marich
Gujarati: Kala
Mari
Hindi:
Kali Mirch, Ushan
Kannada:
Kari Menasu
Kashmiri: Maricham
Konkani:
Pokhlem Miri, Mire
Malayalam:
Kurukulak, Nallamulak
Marathi:
Miri, Kali Miri, Kali Mirchi, Mirwel
Oriya: Dolo
Maricho
Pali: Piphali
Tamil:
Milaku
Telugu:
Marichamu, Mariyamu
Urdu:
Siyah, Mirch, Ushan [2]
Taxonomic Classification
Domain: Eukaryta
Kingdom:
Plantae-
Plants
Clade:
Angipsperm
Subkingdom:
Tracheobionta-
Vascular plants
Superdivision:
Spermatophyta-
Seed plants
Division:
Magnoliophyta-
Flowering plants
Class:
Magnoliopsida-
Dicotyledons
Subclass:
Magnoliidae
Order: Piperales
Family: Piperaceae-
Pepper family
Genus: Piper
L- Pepper
Species: nigrum
L- Black
(Piper nigrum=Black Pepper) [3],
[4]
Geographical
Distribution
Maricham-Black pepper (Piper nigrum) L is native to Western
Ghats of Kerala State in India. There it grows wild in the mountains. The sub
mountainous tracts of the Western Ghats are believed to be the centre of origin
of Maricham-black pepper (Piper nigrum)
L. Based on known occurrences, bioclimatic areas with higher probabilities are
mainly located in the eastern and western coasts of Indian Peninsula, the east
of Sumatra Island, some areas in Malay Archipelago (an extensive group of Malay
islands) and the southeast coastal areas of China. The minimum temperature of
the coldest month, the mean monthly temperature range and the precipitation of
the wettest month were identified as highly effective factors in distribution
of Maricham-Black pepper (Piper nigrum)
L and possibly account for the crop’s distribution pattern. Such climatic
requirements inhibited this species from disappearing and gaining a larger
geographical range. It is cultivated all over the tropics for its fruit which
is used as a spice. Like in India it is now cultivated as a commercial crop in
Vietnam, Indonesia and Brazil. Maricham-Black pepper (Piper nigrum) L is the world’s most traded spice. It is one of the
most common spice added to cuisines around the world. [5], [6]
Plant Morphology
Macroscopic Characteristics
The
Plant:
The Maricham-Black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a perennial woody vine. This stout woody evergreen
climber climbs up to 4 to 10 meters in height on supporting trees, poles, or
trellises (a framework used as a support for fruit tree or creepers).
It is a spreading vine, rooting readily where trailing
stems touch the ground. The vines branch horizontally from nodes and do not
attain length, but the full grown vines present the appearance of bush.
The Roots:
The Roots
are of two types; adventitious feeding roots and supporting or climbing aerial
roots.
The Stem:
The single Stem
bears 20 to 30 fruiting spikes. Based on growth habits, morphological
characters and functions, five distinct types of stem portions can be
identified in the shoot system of the pepper vine.
1. Main Stem which originates from the seed or from
seed cutting. It climbs on a support with the aid of aerial or adventitious
roots.
2. Runner Shoots are produced from the basal portion
of the main stem. They grow at right angle to the main stem, usually restricted
up to 50 cm from the ground.
3. Fruiting branches (Plagiotropes) are produced from
the nodes of main stem.
They grow laterally more or less at right angles to
the main stem, bearing the spikes.
4. Top shoots (Orthotropes): After a period of
vertical growth, the top portion of main shoots attains a bushy appearance with
shorter, thicker internodes. They branch profusely with large number of
adventitious roots at the nodes. This portion of the main shoot is called top
shoots or Orthotropes.
5. Hanging shoots (Geotropes): In a fully grown vine,
some of the plagiotropes at the top portion are seen to give rise to a special
type of shoots which hang down and grow geotropically.
The Leaves:
The Leaves are
almond shaped, simple, opposite, succulent or fleshy, soft, broadly lanceolate
or ovate, alternate, 5 to 10 cm long and 3 to 6 cm across. Wide variations
occur in size and shape of the leaves; petiole 0.5 to 4 cm long, glabrous;
lamina 6 to 15 cm long and 2.5 to 12 cm across oblique or cuneate at base,
acuminate at apex, entire, membranous; secondary nerves 5 to 9 pairs.
The Inflorescence:
The Inflorescence
is a pendulous spike or a catkin or ament, thin, slim, cylindrical cluster,
with inconspicuous or no petals, produced at the nodes opposite to the upper
leaves. The spikes lengthen up to 7 to 15 cm as the fruit matures.
Inflorescence Flowers
The Flowers:
The Fruits:
The Flowers are
very minute, small; produced on pendulous spikes 4 to 8 cm long at the leaf
nodes; monoecious or dioecious or hermaphrodite forms. In cultivated variety
the flowers are bisexual, whitish to yellow-green in color, small, sessile,
arranged spirally along the spike. The flowers are bracteolate (Bracteole= a
small leaf or leaf-like structure directly subtending a flower or
inflorescence) with four peltate bracts; bracts of female spikes copular,
adnate without raised margins; bracteoles forming a cup around the ovary;
fruiting spikes fleshy, interrupted, up to 18 cm long; peduncles 1 to 2.5 cm
long, glabrous; Perianth: The
flowers are apetalous, lack the entire perianth. Pepper is protogynous i. e. the gynoecium
develops before androecium. So
generally flowers lower on the spike are pollinated by pollen dehising from
those situated above. So pollination is by means of gravity (Geitonogamy). Gynoecium is composed of a single
carpel or 3 to 5 carpels. At the center
of the flower is unilocular, superior ovary. The style is short with star
shaped stigma which is covered with a viscous liquid that favors fertilization.
Androecium composed of 2 to 4
stamens on either side of the ovary. The short filaments bear oval shaped
anthers with two pollen sacs. Opening of flowers (Anthesis) occurs in the evening. They open from the base to the
tip.
Green Drupes stages of ripening Peppercorns
The Fruits
are round, berry-like, up to 6 mm in diameter, 3-4 mm across, pyriform or
globose green at first but turning red as they ripen, black on drying,
Botanically the fruit is a drupe and when dried is called peppercorn. Each
fruit contains a single seed.
The Seeds:
The Seed
single, occupies the largest volume of the fruit, cream in color, 3 to 4 mm in
diameter. [7], [8], [9], [10], [11], [12]
Microscopic
Characteristics
Transverse
section of the fruit of Maricham-Black pepper (Piper nigrum):
Epicarp shows an outer layer of polygonal cells having a
distinct cuticle containing dark brown to blackish contents, followed by 2-3
layers of thin walled parenchyma cells intermingled with greatly thickened
isodiametric to radially elongated stone cells; Mesocarp is a comparatively broad zone constituting the greater
area of the Pericarp. The outer 7-8
layers of cells are parenchymatous and certain small starch grains, scattered
among these cells are noted larger secretion sacs with suberized (impregnated
with suberin, an inert waxy substance) walls and oil, resin contents. The next
several layers of cells are compressed; fibrovascular bundles ramify in these
regions. Beneath the compressed cells is a layer of larger oil cells having
suberized walls, followed by a zone of two layers of small parenchyma cells. Endocarp consists of single layer of
stone cells with inner walls stronger than those of outer layer. Testa (outer covering of seeds)
consists of 2-3 layers of compressed elongated cells beneath them is pigment
layer containing a dark-brown tannin substance. In the inner zone of Perisperm the cells are radially
elongated which embed starch, protein and a large amount of oleoresins. Tracheids (elongated water conducting
cell in xylem) are pitted, some of which show helical thickenings on their
secondary walls.
Powder
microscopy:
Powder is dark brown to blackish in color having
pungent odour and bitter, acrid taste. Stained with safranin, powder shows
isodiametric or slightly elongated stone cells, interspersed with thin walled
polygonal hypodermal cells, beaker shaped stone cells from endocarp and
abundant polyhedral, elongated cells from perisperm, packed tightly with masses
of compound and single, oval to round, starch grains, oil globules and
trachieds. [13]
Varieties of
Pepper
Black
pepper: The king of spices
Black pepper is produced from the still-green, unripe
drupes. The drupes are cooked briefly in hot water. The heat ruptures the cell
walls. They are then dried in the sun or drying machines for several days.
During drying the skin around the seed shrinks and darkens into a thin wrinkled
black layer. The dried spice is called peppercorn. On some estates, the berries
are separated from the stem by hand and then dried in the sun without boiling
process. Pepper spirit and oil is extracted from berries by crushing them. [14]
Black pepper is an important constituent of the famous
tri-herbal formulation: “Trikatu”. Black
pepper is one of the most widely used spices in the world. It stands
side-by-side with salt on dining table. There is a distinct and undeniable
earthiness to the flavor of black pepper, one that is woody, piney and sharp
all at the same time. It has a unique pungent taste.
Black pepper is not intended to be used like salt.
Black pepper is not a flavor enhancer but a spice.
Black pepper enhances the bioavailability of many
drugs. There are vast health benefits attributed to black pepper. Black pepper
certainly has more uses than most people would even dream of. Pepper spirit is
used in many medicinal and beauty products. Pepper oil is used as Ayurvedic massage
oil and in certain herbal treatments. It is used in many polyherbal
formulations to detoxify systems. It is used to relieve: coughs, common cold, respiratory
disorders, dyspepsia, pyorrhea, dental disorders, diarrhea, constipation,
anemia, heart disease etc. [15]
Black and white pepper
White pepper:
Mangalore spice
White
pepper consists solely of the seed of the ripe fruit of the pepper plant, with
the thin darker-colored skin (flesh) of the fruit removed. Fully ripe red
pepper berries are soaked in water for about a week. The peppercorn then
softens and decomposes; rubbing then removes what remains of the fruit. The
naked seeds are then dried. The process is known as ‘retting’.
White pepper is milder than black pepper with less
complex flavor less pungent taste. White pepper is used in Chinese and Thai
cuisine and also in salads, cream sauces, light colored sauces, mashed
potatoes. White pepper has a different flavor from that of black pepper because
it lacks certain compounds present in the outer layer of the drupe. White
pepper can have a musty, earthy or grassy flavor, which can vary depending on
the type of processing used and handling after production. [16]
White pepper is rich in antioxidants and a potent
anti-inflammatory agent. Hence it is used to treat arthritis. White pepper
stimulates the secretion of digestive enzymes including pancreatic lipase,
amylase, trypsin and chymotrypsin. Hence it is used as a digestive agent. It
boosts curcumin absorption. It stops diarrhea. It decreases blood pressure,
hence used to treat heart diseases. [17]
Green pepper
Green pepper is unripe drupe of flowering pepper
plant. It should be correctly called as green peppercorn because the word green pepper or bell pepper refers to green
capsicum which is not a true pepper. Dried peppercorns
are treated with sulphur dioxide to preserve their color. Green peppercorns are
preserved in brine (strong salt solution) or vinegar (acetic acid) and served
as pickle. They are also preserved by canning or freeze-drying. Fresh,
unpreserved green pepper drupes are unknown and are not available. They have a
typical “fresh spicy” odor which is different from black pepper. They have
pungent taste. If not preserved properly they decay quickly. They are used in
Thai cuisine. They are not popular for medicinal use. [18]
Pink pepper
Pink peppercorns are not true pepper corns of the
genus Piper. They are the fruits of the Peruvian pepper tree Schinus molle or its relative, the
Brazilian pepper tree Schinus
terebinthifolius plants from Anacardiaceae family. As they are members of the
cashew family, they may cause allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis. Since
the berries are of these plants are of the same shape and size of true
peppercorns, they are marketed under the name “pink peppercorn”. Moreover they
have “spicy” aroma and a lighter pepper-like taste. They are used as spice
similar to black pepper for these pair well with seafood and in light sauces due
to their pretty color and light taste. [19], [20]
Varieties of
Pepper [21]
Orange
pepper and red pepper
Orange or red peppers are ripe drupes preserved in
brine or vinegar. They are dried soon as the berries of pepper plant ripen.
Many times orange, red colored capsicum is sold as “orange or red pepper”. [22]
Wild pepper
Wild pepper grows in the Western Ghats region of
India. In the19th century the forests contained a large number of
pepper vines. However deforestation resulted in “wild pepper” growing in more
limited forest patches from Goa to Kerala. As the quality and yield of
cultivated variety improved, the source of wild variety gradually decreased. No
successful grafting of commercial pepper on wild pepper has been achieved to
date. [23]
Parts used
Roots, Leaves, Fruits (Berries), Seeds
References:
[1] https://en.wikipedia/wiki/Black_pepper
[4] https://en.wikipedia/wiki/Black_pepper
[5] https://en.wikipedia/wiki/Black_pepper
[6] Chao-yunHao et al,
Modeling the Potential Geographic Distribution of Black Pepper (Piper nigrum)
in Asia Using GIS Tools, Journal of Integrative Agriculture, Volume 11, Issue
4, April 2012, Pages 593-599
[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_pepper
[8] google images
[9] https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/154014/9/07 chapter%201.pdf
[10] http://thestudyofflowers.blogspot.com/2016/02/piper-nigrum.html
[11] http://eagri.org/eagri50/HORT282/pdf/lec03.pdf
[12] https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg/special-pages/plant-detail.aspx?id=5262
[13] Manisha NTrivedi et al,
Pharmacognostic, Phytochemical Analysis and Antimicrobial Activity of Two Piper
Species, Pharmacie Globale, (IJCP), 2011, 7 (05)
[20] https://www.thekitchen.com/whats-the-deal-with-green-blac-93231
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