Aardraka (Ginger)-(Zingiber officinale) Part 3
Aardraka
(Ginger)-(Zingiber officinale) Part 3
Aardraka (Zingiber officinale) contains many
bioactive phytochemicals. Here I describe in detail the pharmacology of
Shogaol.
Shogaol
Molecular
formula: C17H24O3
Structural
formula:
Shogaols are pungent
constituents of Ginger (Zingiber
officinale). The chemical structure of [6]-shogaol is similar to that of
[6]-gingerol. On heating or drying Ginger (Zingiber
officinale), [6]-gingerol is converted into [6]-shogaol. Applying heat over
time or cooking Ginger (Zingiber
officinale), shogaols and gingerols are converted into other compounds
which is why Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
loses its spiciness and pungent taste.
The name shogaol is derived from the Japanese name Shoga for Ginger (Zingiber officinale).
In 1912, Wilbur Scoville created Scoville Scale
for the measurement of pungency (spiciness or “heat”) of chilies, peppers and
other spicy foods. The Scoville Scale measures the amount capsaicin using
Scoville Heat Units (SHU) based on the concentration of capsinoids, among which
capsaicin is the predominant component. The pungency or spiciness of shogaol is
rated 160, 000 SHU on the Scoville Scale. When compared to other pungent
compounds, shogaol is moderately or a shade more pungent than piperine, but
less pungent than capsaicin.
[4]-Shogaol,
[6]-shogaol, [8]-shogaol, [10]-shogaol and [12]-shogaol all found in ginger (Zingiber officinale) together constitute
the group, ‘shogaols’. A plant
variety that has been produced by selective breeding is known as ‘cultivar’.
There also exist in Ginger (Zingiber
officinale) cultivars methylated shogaols: methylated [6]-shogaol and
methyl [8]-shogaol respectively. The ratio of shogaols to gingerols is an
indication of the quality of the product.
The process of shogaol
synthesis begins with condensation of vanillin and acetone producing
dehydrozingerone. With further processing, the synthetic shogaol is
obtained. [133]
Pharmacology of Shogaol
Shogaol is another
pleiotropic pharmacological agent found in Ginger (Zingiber officinale). Its pharmacological actions are very much
similar to those of gingerol. Here I touch those points that are a shade
different from those of gingerol.
Pharmacokinetics
The enzymatic reduction of shogaol changes it from pungent to
non-pungent shogaol. The reduction alters the pharmacological properties of
shogaol to some extent. [134]
Shogaol is a bioactive
chemical isolated from fresh ginger (Zingiber
officinale). produced in the liver.
It is involved in many processes in the body, including tissue building and
repair, making chemicals and proteins needed in the body and for immune system.
Conjugation with glutathione attenuates the biological activities of shogaol. [135]
On oral administration
[6]-shogaol is mostly metabolized in the body and excreted in the urine as
metabolites. [136]
The
cysteine-conjugated metabolite of [6]-shogaol, M2 exerts its bioactivity by
acting as a carrier of [6]-shogaol (6S) in both cancer cells and in mice. [137]
Anti-inflammatory
activity of Shogaol
To evaluate antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
properties of [6]-shogaol, N-formyl-methinoyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (f-MLP) was
used to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) in human polymorphonuclear
neutrophils (PMN) and increase oxidative stress; to inhibit lipopolysaccharide
induced nitrite and prostaglandin E(2) production in RAW 264.7 cells and
subsequently induce inflammation. The use of [6]-shogaol in these situations, exhibited the most potent antioxidant
and anti-inflammatory properties which can be attributed to the presence of α
and β-unsaturated ketone moiety.
[Note:
RAW 267.7 cells are the monocyte/macrophage-like cells originating from Abelson
leukemia virus transformed cell line derived from BALB/c mice. They are the
most commonly used myeloid cell line for research] [138]
A study
showed that after 3 hours of heating Ginger (Zingiber officinale) at 75, 100 and 1250 C, the gingerol
content was reduced by 6.8, 12.6 and 42.7% respectively, and shogaol content
was increased by 2.95, 4.85 and 9.34 fold. This is because of the fact that, on
heating, gingerol is converted into shogaol. Thus by heat treatment, tumor
necrosis factor- α, prostaglandin E(2) and nitric
oxide-inhibitory capacities of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) could be increased.
This showed that anti-inflammatory effect of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is better on heating it. [139]
Antioxidant activity
of Shogaol
Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor
(Nrf2) is a multifunctional cytoprotective factor. It has antioxidant and
anti-inflammatory properties. It is essential for detoxifying proteins. It is
also a powerful modulator of longevity of species. Shogaols express antioxidant
activity via nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (Nrf2). Due to this shogaols are more potent antioxidants than gingerols. [140]
Immunomodulatory
activity of Shogaol
Administration of shogaol to experimental
animals, increased total white blood cell count (WBC). Shogaol restored humoral
and cellular response in experimental animals. In a dose dependent manner
shogaol restored cellular and humoral responses in cyclophosphamide-induced
immunosuppressed animals. Thus shogaol exhibits immunomodulatory activity.
[141]
A study showed that
[6]-shogaol in chloroform extract inhibited the production of nitric oxide (NO)
and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) by activating macrophages. Pretreatment with
shogaol at a concentration of 20μg/ml, also reduced mRNA, iNOS,
interleukin-12p40 (IL-20p40) and interleukin-23p19 levels in animals under
study. Shogaol also inhibited polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) migration
through human vascular endothelial cells. [142]
Anti
larval activity of Shogaol
[6]-Shogaol and
[6]-gingerol destroy Anisakis larvae in vitro. Anisakis is a parasite in fish.
The fish infested with Anisakis cause Anisakiasis or herring worm disease in
Chinese people who eat raw fish. Raw fish eaten along with Ginger (Zingiber officinale) protect folks from
developing Anisakiasis. [143]
Anti-allergic activity of Shogaol
[6]-Shogaol
alleviates allergic dermatitis. It inhibits cytokines and suppresses elevated
immunoglobulin-E. [144]
Actions of Shoagol on
Skin
Shogalos display free
radical scavenging activity, antioxidant activity, promoted epidermal
keratinocytes and dermal fibroblast cell growth. [145]
[6]-Shogaol inhibits melanogenesis in B16F10 mouse
melanoma cells via activating the extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK)
pathway. The ERK pathway contributes to the control of a large number of
cellular processes such as: regulation of cell proliferation, synaptic
plasticity, proliferation of endothelial cells during angiogenesis etc. [146]
Melanin is formed in the melanocytes, located in the inner layer of the
skin. It is synthesized from tyrosine by enzyme tyrosinase. Melanin and
carotene blend to produce skin colour as well as the colour in hair and eyes.
[6]-shogaol suppresses the tyrosinase activity and amount of melanin synthesis.
Further [6]-shogaol inhibits α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH)-induced
melanogenesis through the acceleration of extracellular responsive kinase (ERK)
and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K/Akt-)-mediated
microphthalmia-associated transcriptional factor (MITF) degradation. [147]
Actions of
Shogaol on Wound healing
In an experimental
study on wound healing, [10]-shogaol showed antioxidant and free radical
scavenging activity. It promoted epidermal keratinocytes and dermal fibroblast
cell growth. It enhanced the platelet derived growth factor-α β (PDGF- α β),
enhanced the growth factor production in transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)
and vascular endothelial growth factor (VRGF). Thus [10]-shogaol promotes wound
healing. [148]
Actions of Shogaol on Head, Neck and Face
[6]-Shogaol
has many noteworthy effects on head and neck cancer cell lines. In particular
the enhancement of radiosensitivity of squamous cell carcinoma is remarkable.
However combination of [6]-shogaol with cisplatin showed no synergistic effect.
[149]
Oral administration of
[6]-shogaol at 10, 20 and 40 mg/kg body weight considerably reversed tumor
incidence of Dimethylbenz[a]nthracene (DMBA)-induced buccal cancer in hamsters.
This activity was attributed to antioxidant activity of [6]-shogaol as well as
modulating apoptotic signals by the compound. [150]
Actions of Shogaol on Breast
[6]-Shogaol can be used to treat breast and colon cancers. The antitumor
effects of [6]-shogaol are mediated through activation of peroxisome
proliferator activated receptor γ (PPAR γ). [151]
[4]-Shogaol has been
shown to exert anti-metastatic activity against adenocarcinoma of the breast.
This activity is attributed to anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of
shogaols. [152]
Actions of Shogaol on
Hematopoetic System
Verma
et al found Ginger (Zingibar officinale)
to decrease platelet aggregation. [8]-Gingerol, [8]-shogaol, [8]-paradol and
gingerol analogues exhibited anti-platelet activities. In a small study,
Shrivastava found that Ginger (Zingibar
officinale) decreased thromboxane levels. However Lumb found that Ginger (Zingibar officinale) had no effect on
platelet count, bleeding time or platelet aggregation. Similarly, Bordia et al
found that Ginger (Zingibar officinale)
had no effect on platelet aggregation, fibrinolytic activity and fibrinogen
levels. Janssen at al also showed that oral administration of Ginger (Zingibar officinale) had no effect on
platelet and thromboxane B2 production. Certainly more study is necessary on
these contradictory results. [153]
Myelodysplastic
syndromes (MDS) are heterogenous clonal stem cell disorders characterized by
dysplastic hematopoesis, peripheral cytopenia and elevated serum ferritin (SF).
In MDS, ineffective erythropoiesis enhances iron absorption through
downregulation of hepcidin. In a clinical trial, oral administration of 20 mg
of Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
extract containing [6]-shogaol once a day
decreased ferritin level in the blood. By upregulating hepcidin and its
prohormones, [6]-shogaol decreases ferritin levels, possibly through
improvement in liver function. [154]
The
HL-60 cell line is a human leukemia cell line that has been used for laboratory
research on blood cell formation and physiology. A study showed that treatment
with [8]-Shogaol caused a rapid loss of mitochondrial transmembrane potential,
stimulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, release of
mitochondrial cytochrome c into cytosol and subsequently apoptosis of HL-60
leukemia cells. [155]
In
another study, three leukemia cell lines and primary leukemia cells were used
to investigate the effect of [6]-shogaol on apoptosis of these cells. In many
cases Eukaryotic Initiation Factor 2 α (eIF2α)-phosphorylation is a biological
response that facilitates cells to cope with stressful environments. Deficiency
of glucose is an important form of stress that is associated with an induction of
apoptosis. [6]-Shogaol induced apoptosis through a process involving
dephosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 α (eIF2α). Furthermore,
[6]-shogaol markedly inhibited tumor growth and induced apoptosis in U937
xenograft mouse model. [156]
Actions of Shogaol on Musculoskeletal System
The bioavailability of [6]-shogaol is poor. To improve its
bioavailability by improving solubility [6]-shogaol was encapsulated in solid
lipid nanoparticles via high-pressure homogenization. The resulting [6]-shogaol
displayed better pharmacological activity. This nano form of [6]-shogaol
lowered the level of uric acid via inhibiting the activity of xanthine oxidase.
The nano-[6]-shogaol also reduced the production of interleukin-1
β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)
in rats with hyperuricemia-arthritis (gouty-arthritis). [157]
In an experimental
model [6]-shogaol reduced the
inflammation in gouty arthritis as was evident by reduction in paw edema,
levels and activities of lysosomal enzymes, lipid peroxidation, antioxidant
status and inflammatory mediator tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). This
indicates that [6]-shogaol can
be used for the treatment of gouty arthritis. [158]
Actions
of Shogaol on Nervous System
Administration of
shogaol was found to prevent pathological changes in traumatic spinal cord
injury and to promote the recovery of motor functions in experimental animals.
This suggests that shogaol can be used in humans to treat spinal cord injuries.
[159]
While resting, the
microglia cells play a key role in defense of the nervous system. When
activated, they can be inimical to neurons and can result in neuro-inflammation
and neuro-degeneration. [6]-shogaol inhibits the activation of microglia. This
activity is better than that of [6]-gingerol. [6]-Shogaol also displayed
anti-neuroinflammatory activity. In vivo, [6]-shogaol showed significant
neuro-protective effect in transient global ischemia via the inhibition of
microglia. [160]
In
another study, anti-neuroinflammatory activity of [6]-shogaol was found to be
useful for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, global ischemia, dementia and
memory impairment. [161]
A study in animal model showed
that administration of [6]-shogaol at a dose of 5mg/kg body weight could
ameliorate autoimmune encephalomyelitis. [162]
Age-related neurological
disorders (ANDs) are multifactorial disorders. They are characterized by common
neuro-pathological conditions such as oxidative stress, neuro-inflammation and
disturbed quality control of proteins in the nervous system. Phytochemicals of
Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
[6]-shogaol, [6]-gingerol, [6]-paradol and dehydrozingerone effectively
ameliorate neurological symptoms of these maladies. Researchers suggest that
these phytochemicals have therapeutic potential in age-related neurological
disorders (ANDs). [163]
Deposition
of amyloid plaques in the nervous system is the hallmark of Alzheimer’s
disease. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of [6]-shogaol protect the
nervous system from deposition of amyloid plaques. Furthermore [6]-shogaol can
be useful for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. [164]
Phytochemicals of
Ginger (Zingiber officinale),
[6]-shogaol and [6]-gingerol protect humans from neuroblastoma, β-Amyloid
insult and protect normal vascular endothelial cells. [165]
Actions of Shogaol on Cardiovascular
System
On
intravenous injection at lower doses 1.75 to 3 mg/kg body weight, [6]-shogaol
and [6]-gingerol lower elevated blood pressure. [166]
Vascular
smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation is involved in the pathogenesis of
cardiovascular disease. A study showed that the chloromethane extract of Ginger
(Zingiber officinale) containing
gingerols and shogaols inhibited vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC)
proliferation. The extract did not interfere with endothelial cell
proliferation. [6]-Shogaol inhibited DNA synthesis and arrested vascular smooth
muscle cell (VSMC) growth at G0/G1 cell-cycle phase. [167]
Actions of shogaol on Respiratory System
Suekawa
M et al showed [6]-Shogaol exerts antitussive activity.
Huang
JY et al showed that [6]-Shogaol inhibited cell proliferation by inducing
autophagic cell death. They also described anticancer activity of [6]-Shogaol
in human non-small cell lung cancer A549 cells. Huang JY et al feel that [6]-Shogaol
may be a promising chemo-preventive agent against human non-small cell lung
cancer. [168]
Another
study on lung cancer cells showed that shogaols initiate toxicity in cancer
cells by early modulation of glutathione (GSH) content in cancer cells. The
subsequently generated oxidative stress activates p53 pathway that leads to
release of mitochondria-associated apoptotic molecules such as cytochrome C. It
was shown that a dose of 30 mg/kg body weight of [6]-shogaol was able to
decrease tumor burden without causing toxicity to animals tested. [169]
Actions
of Shogaol on Gastro-Intestinal System
A
study showed that 150mg of dried ginger rhizome (Shunthee) contains 2mg of [6]-shogaol. At a dose of 150mg/kg
bodyweight of dried ginger rhizome (Shunthee) containing 2mg of [6]-shogaol
increased the blood flow in intestine of rats. This suggests that
Shunthee/[6]-shogaol can be useful in the treatment of ischemia-related
diseases of intestines. [170]
[6]-Shogaol inhibits the growth
and induces apoptosis in COLO 205 human colorectal cancer cells through
modulation of mitochondrial functions regulated by reactive oxygen species
(ROS), caspase activation and DNA fragmentation. [171]
In another study [6]-shogaol was
found to induce autophagic and apoptotic cell death in adenocarcinoma (HT-29)
of human colon. The study showed that [6]-shogaol induced cell cycle arrest at
G2/M phase. [172]
Cysteine-conjugated shogaols (M2,
M2’ and M”) are major metabolites of [6], [8], and [10] shogaols in human and
in mice. They induce apoptosis through oxidative stress in colon cancer cells.
[173]
Actions of Shogaol on
Liver
A study showed that [6]-shogaol induced
oxidative stress leading to apoptosis in human HepG2 hepatoma cell line.
Furthermore [6]-shogaol was found to be useful in hepatic disorders caused by
oxidative stress. [174]
Mahlavu
cells are poorly differentiated and p53 mutants of human hepatoma subline. They
are refractory to a number of chemotherapeutic agents and radiotherapy. A study
showed that [6]-shogaol isolated from rhizome of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) induced apoptotic cell death in Mahlavu cells
by increasing oxidative stress. [175]
[6]-Shogaol
induces cell cycle arrest apoptosis in human hepetoma cells through pleiotropic
mechanisms. [176]
[6]-Shogaol
induces apoptosis in humal hepatocellular carcinoma cells by causing prolonged
stress in endoplasmic reticulum. The anticancer effect was much better when [6]-Shogaol
was combined with salubrinal. [177]
An
extensive study on mouse, rat, dog, monkey and human showed that [6]-shogaol is
metabolized in liver cancer cells but the mechanism of anticancer activity is
different. This should be considered when planning preclinical trials toward
chemoprevention by [6]-shogaol. [178]
Actions of Shogaol on Pancreas
[6]-Shogaol induces Ca2+ signals in β
cells of the pancreas and sensitizes them to stimulation by glucose. [179]
Actions of
Shogaol on Metabolism
Adiponectin is a protein hormone
that modulates a number of metabolic processes including that of glucose and
oxidation of fatty acids. Adiponectin is secreted from adipose tissue and
placenta in pregnancy. Its blood level is inversely correlated with body mass
index. Circulating concentration of adiponectin increases during starvation and
caloric restriction. This is because the adipose tissue within the bone marrow
which increases during caloric restriction, contributes to elevated circulating
adiponectin.
Mice with increased adiponectin
show reduced adipocyte differentiation and increased energy expenditure. The
hormone plays a role in the suppression of the metabolic derangements that may
result in type 2 diabetes, obesity, atherosclerosis, non alcoholic fatty liver
disease (NAFLD) and other risk factors for metabolic syndrome. Adiponectin exerts its weight reduction
effect via the brain. This is similar to the action of leptin. The two hormones
perform complementary actions and can have synergistic effects. In mice, adiponectin
in combination with leptin has been shown to completely reverse insulin
resistance. [180]
Via inhibition of tumor
necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), [6]-shogaol and [6]-gingerol mediated downregulation
of the adiponectin regulation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. [181]
Anti-adipogenesis activityof
[6]-shagaol and [6]-gingerol can stimulate lipolysis and prevent adipogenesis.
They can be effective anti-obesity drugs. [182]
Hyperlipidemia is said to be due
to oxidative stress and inflammation. In recent years, [6]-shogaol has been
found to correct hyperlipidemia and restore lipid profile to normal level. [183]
Phytochemicals of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) such as [6]-shogaol
and [6]-gingerol ameliorate obesity and inflammation via regulating micro
RNA-21/132 expression and activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation in white
adipose tissue. [184]
Phytochemicals of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) such as [6]-shogaol
and [6]-gingerol can decrease plasma total cholesterol (TC), total triglycerides
(TG) and inhibit liver steatosis by regulating the expression of hepatic genes.
[185]
The term metabolic syndrome
includes obesity, dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia and insulin resistance. The
ethanolic extract of Ginger (Zingiber
officinale) at doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg body weight was found to be
effective in preventing metabolic syndrome in high-fat diet-fed rats. This
effect was attributed to [6]-shogaol and [6]-gingerol. [186]
In studies on rats, gingerols and
shogaols of Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
increased intracellular calcium concentration. In this regard, the shogaols are
more potent than gingerols. Gingerols and shogaols increased adrenaline
secretion which influenced energy consumption. [187]
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) is known to warm
body. In healthy women with cold-sensitive extremities the warming effect of
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) was
studied. Six women drank 280mL of 0.07% ginger extract containing bioactive
chemicals in a temperature-controlled room with room temperature 210
C. Before intake of Ginger (Zingiber
officinale) extract their palm temperatures were recorded. After intake of
extract temperatures were recorded every 10 minutes for 60 minutes. The palm
temperature increased 20 minutes after intake of Ginger (Zingiber officinale) beverage. Thus beverages containing Ginger (Zingiber officinale) may improve cold
sensitivity. [188]
Actions of
Shogaol against Diabetes
In a study, streptozotocin was
used to induce diabetes in mice. Intraperitoneal injection of [6]-shogaol at 5
and 10 mg/kg body weight lowered blood sugar. Furthermore [6]-shogaol was found
to prevent diabetes related complications in these mice. The researchers feel
[6]-shogaol can be used in humans to prevent complications in diabetic
patients. [189]
Through
anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, hypoglycemic and antihyperlipidemic
activities [6]-shogaol ameliorates diabetic nephropathy. [190]
Actions
of Shogaol on Urinary System
[6]-Shogaol has anti-inflammatory
and anticancer activity. [6]-Shogaol enhances tumor necrosis factor-related
apoptosis to kill cancer cells. [6]-Shogaol induces apoptosis in renal
carcinoma Caki cells via reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated cytochrome c
release. [191]
Actions of Shogaol on Male Reproductive System
Daily oral feeding of 100mg/kg
body weight of Ginger (Zingiber
officinale) extract containing [6)-Shogaol and [6]-gingerol inhibited the
progression of PC-3 xenografts of prostate cancer by 56%. The effect was
attributed to anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antiproliferative activity of
these phytochemicals. [192]
[6]-Shogaol (6-SHO)
found in Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
is a potent anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anticancer agent. To investigate
anticancer effect of [6]-shogaol; LNCaP, DU 145, and PC3 human and HMVP2 mouse
prostate cancer cells were cultured. [6]-Shogaol (6-SHO) effectively induced
apoptosis in these cells. Further analysis showed that [6]-Shogaol (6-SHO)
reduced interleukin-6 (IL-6)-induced signal transducer and activator of
transcription 3 (STAT 3) and inhibited tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF- α)-induced
NF- κB activity in these cells. [193]
Docetaxel is an
important anticancer chemotherapeutic agent. PC 3 Human prostate cancer cell
lines are sensitive to docetaxel but PC3R cell lines are resistant to it. A
study showed that [6]-gingerol, [6]-shogaol and [10]-shogaol inhibited the
proliferation of PC3R i. e. docetaxel resistant prostate cancer cells through
the downregulation of multidrug resistance-associated protein 1 (MRP1) and
Glutathione S-transferase Pi (GST π) protein expression. [194]
Actions of Shogaol
on Female Reproductive System
Pathogenesis of endometriosis is
poorly understood. Inflammatory process is reported to be involved in the
pathogenesis of endometriosis. In the animal study model, oral administration
of [6]-shogaol at 100 to 150 mg/kg body weight for five weeks arrested/prevented
progression of the pathology. Histological analysis reported atrophy of the
lesions. [6]-Shogaol also inhibited the lesions in vivo. This effect was due to inhibition of COX-2 and PEG-2
mediated inflammatory process and via regulation of VEGF. [195]
[6]-Shogaol and [6]-gingerol
modulate the growth of ovarian cancer cells via angiogenic factor. [196]
A study showed that [6]-shogaol induced
apoptosis and arrest of human cervical cancer cells at G2/M phase. [197]
Antitumor
Activities of Shogaol
By various mechanisms, carbonyl
compounds, [6]-Shogaol and [6]-gingerol of Ginger (Zingiber officinale), induce cell death in cancer cells e.g.
extensive cytoplasmic vacuolation, autophagy-apoptosis, DNA fragmentation and
proteasomal inhibition etc. [198]
Studies thus far found that
[6]-shogaol is extensively metabolized in cancer cells. Recently twelve
metabolites of [6]-shogaol have been synthesized. Growth inhibition assay
showed that [6]-shogaol and synthetic metabolites of [6]-shogaol were equally
effective in arresting the growth of various tumors. [199]
Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant
and antiproliferative properties of [6], [8] and [10]-shogaols are used by
research workers to treat various cancers. Shogaols are more potent in this
regard than gingerols. [200]
Thiol-conjugated metabolites of
shogaol play an important role in cancer prevention. [201]
The researchers have identified
more than a dozen metabolites of [6]-shogaol. They remain bioactive in the
cells. All the metabolites show anticancer activity and induce apoptosis in
various cancer cells. They are selectively lethal to cancer cells. They have
very low toxicity in normal cells. [202]
The content of [6]-shogaol is very
low in fresh Ginger (Zingiber officinale),
but significantly higher after steaming. [6]-Shogaol is a lead compound for the
synthesis of new anticancer compounds originating from Ginger (Zingiber officinale) [203]
Enterohepatic recirculation of
bioactive phytochemicals from Ginger (Zingiber
officinale) is associated with enhanced tumor growth-inhibitory activity of
Ginger (Zingiber officinale)-extract.
[204]
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