Pharmacognosy of Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica)
Chitraka
(Plumbago zeylanica)
By
Dr. Hemant Vinze M.
S.
Introduction
Many experts in Ayurvedic System of medicine are not
enthused with this wonder medicine, Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica). They are not even aware of its pleiotropic
pharmacological activity compared to some other Ayurvedic herbal stars. Well!
Let not this obliviousness fool you!! Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica) has withstood the test of time in Ayurvedic
pharmacopoeia, especially as a digestant and is a powerful ally to many herbs
in digestive formulations. Rightly so as Ayurveda recognizes that health begins
in the digestive system.
Growing in abundance in the wild in any type of
soil, its delicate white flowers and beautiful, gorgeous, lustrous green
foliage had enticed many passers-by. This led the garden lovers and botanists
to cultivate and domesticate Chitraka (Plumbago
zeylanica) in gardens and indoor flower pots.
Chitraka (Plumbago
zeylanica) may seem gentle or fragile in nature. Its appearance hides a
much different personality as there is nothing ‘gentle’ or ‘delicate’ or
‘fragile’ about Chitraka’s (Plumbago
zeylanica) herbal strength. In fact it is quite hardy when cultivated in
gardens and flower pots and has a pretty
‘fiery attitude’ as a medicine.
Chitraka meaning “spotted one” in Sanskrit is
reminiscent of the spotted leopard and alludes the speedy medicinal activity of
the plant, similar to the speedy power of chase of the spotted leopard to
destroy its prey. Chitraka (Plumbago
zeylanica) is also known asagni meaning
fire or jwaalaa meaning flame. That
Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica) is
epitomized with fire is no joke. Just touching the leaves and stem can irritate
and cause a red, inflamed, itchy rash! This explains why the Spanish call it ‘erva de diablo’ (devil’s herb). Some
practitioners use this irritating quality for therapeutic purposes.
The names agni,
jwaalaa, erva de Diablo demand
respect. Just as one wouldn’t flippantly or casually play with fire, Vaidyas
(Ayurvedic physicians) would not use this medicinal plant thoughtlessly as a
medicine. This explains the obliviousness of Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica) in Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia.
Chitraka (Plumbago
zeylanica) is the food plant for Zebra blue butterfly (Leptotes plinius ) during its larvae stage. [1], [2], [3], [4]
Other
Names
Taxonomic name: Plumbago Zeylanica L, Plumbago scanders L
Sanskrit:
Anala,
Dahana, Agni, Agnika, Jyotee, Vahni, Hutaashana,
English:
Leadwort,
White Leadwort, Doctor bush
Arabic:
Sheetaraj, Shitraj
Assamese:
Agnachit,
Agiyachit, Boga agechita
Bengali:
Chita,
Sufaid, Safed (Safaid)-sitarak, Chitrak, Chitra
Gujarati:
Chitro,
Chitrakmula, Chitrak-safed, Chitrak
Hawaiin:
Ilie’e,
Ilihe’e, Lauhihi
Hindi:
Chitrak,
Chitra,Chira, Cheetah, Chita, Chiti, Vahni
Indonesian:
Daun encok
Javanese:
Bama
Kannada:
Chitramula,
Chitramulika, Vahni, Bilichitramoola, Bilary
Kashmiri:
Chitra,
Shataranja
Malayalam:
Vellakeluveli,
Vellakoduveli, Thum pokkoduveli,
Thumpukotrochi
Malaysian:
Cheraka,
Jarak
Manipuri:
Telhidak angouba
Marathi:
Chitramoola,
Chitraka
Oriya:
Chitamula,
Chitoparu, Chitaaparu, Dhola, Krisanu, Ogni.
Persian:
Shitrak,
Shitrah
Punjabi:
Chitra,
Chitrak
Samoan:
Lautafifi
Sudanese:
Ki enchok
Tamil:
Chittiri,
Chittira, Chittiramoolam, Karimai, Kodiveli
Telugu:
Chitramulam
Thai:
Chet tamun plengkao
Urdu:
Sheetraj,
Zimbabwean:
Umatshisa [5], [6], [7], [8], [9]
Taxonomic
Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
Subkingdom:
Tracheobionata
(Vascular plants)
Unranked:
Angiosperm
Unranked:
Eudicots
Unranked:
Core
eudicots
Order:
Caryophyllales,
Plumbaginales
Division:
Magnoliophyta (Flowering plant)
Superdivision:
Spermatophyta (Seed plants
Class:
Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons)
Subclass:
Caryophyllales
Family:
Plumbaginaceae
(Leadwort family)
Genus:
Plumbago
L
The name of the genus derived from the Latin words plumbum “lead” and agere “to resemble” was
first used by Pliny the Elder (23-79) for a plant known as “molybdaina”. Pliny probably wished to describe blue
colored flowers of chitraka (Plumbago
zeylanica), or the ability of the sap of the plant to create lead-colored
stains on skin or did Pliny believe that chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica) was a ‘cure’ for lead-poisoning?
Carl Linnaeus described Plumbago zeylanica and Plumbago
scandens as separate species and NOT synonyms. [10], [11], [12]
In Ayurveda following vrieties of chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica) are described:
White:
Plumbago
zeylanica
Red: Plumbago
rosea L
Blue: Plumbago
capensis
Waagbhata
mentions three varieties:
Shweta
(White), Peeta (Yellow) and Asita (Black)
For therapeutic purposes White variety (Plumbago
zeylanica) is used.
According to
taxonomy Plumbago is a genus of 10-20
species of flowering plants in the family Plumbaginaceae native to warm
temperate to tropical regions.
The following species are accepted by taxonomists.
·
Plumbago
amplexicaulis Oliv.
·
Plumbago
aphylla Bojer ex
Boiss
·
Plumbago
auriculata Lam.
·
Plumbago
ciliata Engl. Ex Wilmot-Dear
·
Plumbago
coerulea Kunth
·
Plumbago
dawei Rolfe
·
Plumbago
europaea L.
·
Plumbago
glandulicaulis Wilmot-Dear
·
Plumbago
indica L.
·
Plumbago
madagascariensis M. Peltier
·
Plumbago
montis-elgonis Bullock
·
Plumbago
pearsonii L. Bolus
·
Plumbago
pulchella Bois
·
Plumbago
stenophylla Wilmot-Dear
·
Plumbago
tristis Aiton
·
Plumbago
wissii Frieder
·
Plumbago
zeylanica L
Among these species for
therapeutic and research purposes the species Plumbago zeylanica L is accepted. [13], [14]
Geographical
Distribution
Chitraka (Plumbago
zeylanica) a perennial shrub is native to India, old tropical regions of
pacific and Hawaiian islands. Chitraka (Plumbago
zeylanica) is densely distributed in South India and Sri Lanka. Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica) enjoys a
pan-tropical and subtropical distribution. It can be found in Australia and
Arabia. One may find it in palm groves, thickets (a dense group of bushes or
trees), shell mounds and rocky places. It can be grown in green houses in cool
climates. It is now grown in gardens and indoor flower pots. It can be found in
monsoon forests and can be commonly found growing around the bottom of the Olea
tree trunks and vine thickets. It is found at altitudes below 900 m. [15],
[16], [17]
Plant
morphology
Macroscopic
characteristics
Plant
There is no unanimous
opinion in the literature regarding the classification of Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica) as herb or shrub.
Some authors have described it as perennial dicot herb while others have
described it as a shrub.
Chitraka (Plumbago
zeylanica) a large perennial, sub-scandent (i. e. having tendency to climb
or creep), herbaceous, slender, much branched, ever green shrub with glabrous
numerous stems that are erect, climbing and prostrate. Branches green in color.
The plant grows up to 3-4 feet in height. [18], [19], [20], [21]
Roots
Roots are straight, smooth, short, stout pieces
including root stocks, branched or unbranched, with or without secondary roots,
30 cm or more in length, 6 mm or more in diameter; light colored inside,
reddish to deep brown when dry; outer surface brown and striated; scars of
rootlets present; bark thin and brown; internal structure striated; have a
strong, characteristic, disagreeable odor; acrid and bitter taste. [22], [23],
[24]
Stem/Stems
Stems many, somewhat woody, scandent (climbing or
spreading), spreading, striate, glabrous
[25]
Leaves
The leaves are alternate simple, opposite, entire,
spirally arranged; 0. 4 to 0.12 cm long, 0.3-0.5 cm broad, lanceolate (oval or
elliptic), acuminate (pointed), minutely pubescent (hairy) when young, often
with hairy margin; glabrous when mature; with tapered base; smooth and shiny,
dark green above, paler beneath; main nerves 10 to 12 pairs with reticulate
venation between; the stipules are absent; petioles 1 to 1.2 cm long with small
auricles in young leaves.
During summer, the plant remains almost leafless
under natural conditions, but under irrigated conditions the active growth
starts in April. [26], [27], [28], [29]
Flowers / Inflorescence
Chitraka Flowers Chitraka Inflorescence
Chitraka Flowers Chitraka Inflorescence
Flowers in short dense axillary pedunculate spikes 2-8 cm. long,
towards the end of branches; peduncles 3-10cm., stout, shorter than the leaves;
bracts reaching 1-2 by 0.5—1.2 cm., elliptic, subacute, glabrous or nearly so,
5-7 nerved, reticulately veined; bracteoles 1.5-2 by 0.3-0.4 mm., lanceolate
(oblong), acute, with ciliolate (hairy) margins, one nerved, reticulately
veined.
Calyx is persistent and tubular with viscid hairy glands which
secrete mucilage that is capable of attracting and killing insects. It is
unclear what the purpose of these tricomes (hairs) is. Calyx is less than 1.3
cm. long, glabrous or slightly pubescent, divided to within 2 mm. of the base;
sepals imbricate (overlapping like tiles of roof) , lanceolate (oblong), acute three- nerved,
reticulately veined. Corolla tubular, with five petal-like lobes; they are
produced in racemes. Corolla is white, with few irregular pinkish colored bars
in the throat, 2.5 -3 cm. long, pubescent outside; tube 1-2 cm. long, the lower
half cylindrical, 4 mm. in diameter, the upper half much inflated laterally;
upper lip 2 by 1.3 cm. long, ovate-oblong, curved, obtuse, notched; lower lip
as long as the upper, the lobes 1.3 cm. oblong, deep, rounded, the middle lobe
is the broadest. Filaments hairy at base, long, stout, curved; lower
anther-cells minute apiculate (ending abruptly) at the base. Ovary pubescent;
lower part of style pubescent, Capsules 1.5-2 by 0.6-08 cm. clavate (club
shaped), subacute, shortly and bluntly pointed, pubescent; solid stalk
flattened, 1 cm. long.
The inflorescence is of terminal raceme-type about 6-30 cm long
and many flowered. [30], [31], [32], [33], [34]
Fruits
Fruits
are green in color, have apex, have 5 furrows, with sticky hairs when young and
become dark when mature. Fruits are capsules 1.5-2
by 0.6-08 cm.; clavate, subacute, shortly and bluntly pointed,
pubescent; solid stalk flattened, 1 cm. long. Fruits have apex, have 5
furrows. Each fruit contains a single seed. [35], [36], [37]
Seeds
One in each fruit, 5-6 mm. long, orbicular-oblong,
tubercular-verrucose (covered with warty growth), glabrous and reddish brown or
dark brown in color [38], [39], [40]
Microscopic structure
Transverse section of root shows outermost tissue of
cork consisting of 5-7 rows of cubical to rectangular dark brown cells;
secondary cortex consists of 2-3 rows of thin-walled rectangular, light brown
cells; most of the cortex cells contain starch grains; secondary cortex
followed by a wide zone of cortex composed of large polygonal to tangentially
elongated parenchymatous cells varying in size and shape containing starch
grain and some cells with yellow contents, fibers scattered singly or in groups
of 2-6; phloem a narrow zone of polygonal, thin-walled cells consisting of
usual elements and phloem fibers similar to cortical zone, phloem fibers
usually in groups of 2-5 or more but occasionally occurring singly, lignified
with pointed ends and narrow lumen similar in size and shape to those of
secondary cortex; cambium indistinct; xylem light yellow to whitish, vessels
radially arranged with pitted thickenings; medullary rays straight, 1-6
striate, cells radially elongated starch filled with grains; stone cells
absent. [41]
Parts
used
Root, Bark, Leaves
Phytochemistry
The important phytochemicals found in Chitraka (Plumbago zylanica) are:
Plumbagin, 3-Chloroplumbagin, Chitranone, Droserone,
Elliptinone, Zeylanone, Zeylinone, Maritone, Plumbagicasid, sterols
(β-sitosterol, psitosterol, sitosterone, stigmasterol and stigmasterol
acetate), and Dihydrosterone
Phytochemicals identified by researchers recently
are: naphthalene derivatives, naphtoquinones, flavones, terpenes (lupeol,
lupeol acetate, friedenol and lupanone), plumbagin, chitranone, amino acids,
and zeylinon, aminoacids (aspartic acid, tryptophan, tyrosine, threonine,
histidine, glycine, hydroxyproline, alanine and methionine)
Cai (2007) mentions: of nine compounds identified
and accepted as constituents of Chitraka (Plumbago
zeylanica), (1) plumbagin (2) isoshinanolone (3) plumbagic acid (4) β-
Sitasterol (5) 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (6)trans-cinnamic acid (7) vanillic acid
(8) 2, 5-dimethyl-7-hydroxychromone (9) indole-3-carboxaldehyde; compounds (5)
4-hydroxybenzaldehyde (7) vanillic acid (8) 2, 5-dimethyl-7-hydroxychromone (9)
indole-3-carboxaldehyde have been isolated for the first time.
Recently researchers from National Research
Institute of Chinese Medicine have identified and isolated seselin, a new
phytochemical from Chitraka (Plumbago
zeylanica).
Apart from the constituents mentioned above Chitraka
(Plumbago zeylanica) also contains a
variety of important compounds:
Alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, phenolic compounds,
saponins, coumarins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins and fixed oils [42], [43],
[44], [45], [46]
Identity, Purity
and Strength
Foreign matter: Not more than 3
percent
Total Ash: Not more than 3
percent
Acid-insoluble
ash:
Not more than 1 percent
Alcohol-soluble
extractive:
Not less than 12 percent
Water-soluble
extractive: Not
less than 12 percent [47]
Physico-chemical
values
Loss
on drying at 1050 C 8.18
Total
Ash
3.11
Water-soluble
ash
2.27
Acid-insoluble
ash
0.96
Alkalinity
of water soluble ash
0.2 ml/g
Alcohol-soluble
extractive
12.83
Water-soluble extractive 14.67
Crude fibe content 14.30
(Values are mean of 3 readings) [48]
Inorganic
Mineral Analysis of Plumbago zeylanica
Iron 2.92
Copper 0.47
Manganese 1.17
Nickel 0.02
Zinc 0.51
Cobalt 0.09
Cromium 0.00
Sodium 80.00
Potassium 89.00
Calcium 24.00
(Values
in ppm) [49]
Heavy Metal Analysis of Plumbgo zeylonica
Element Observed Value Permissible Limits
Arsenic 0.0001
3.00
Cadmium 0.0065
0.30
Lead 0.2605 10.00
Mercury 0.0031 1.00
(Values
in ppm. Permissible limits are as per the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India,
2008) [50]
Aflatoxins in Plumbago zeylanica
Aflatoxin B1 BDL (DL: 1.0 ppb)
Aflatoxin B2 BDL (DL: 0.5
ppb)
Aflatoxin G1 BDL (DL: 1.0 ppb)
Aflatoxin G2 BDL (DL: 0.5 ppb)
BDL = Below Detectable Limit
DL = Detectable Limit [51]
Permissible
Microbial Load for Plumbago zeylonica
Name of bacteria WHO Limit
Escherichia coli 102
Salmonella species Absence
Shigella species Absence
Enterobacter species 104
Total
bacterial Count 107
Yeast
and Mould
104 [52]
Genetic Identity
Because
of the simplicity of assay and strong discriminatory power, Random Amplified
Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers have been used for many types of genetic
analyses including genome mapping, genotype fingerprinting, reconstruction of
phylogeny and measuring genetic similarities. RAPD does not require any
specific information about DNA sequence to be amplified. By using the method of
RAPD markers Gadge and Nathar were able to determine accurately the taxonomic
identity of Plumbago rosea, Plumbago
auriculata and Plumbago zeylanica.
Johnson
et al also reported similar results by using isozyme and RFLP data for three
species of Plumbago mentioned
above. [53]
Using
ISSR method of molecular markers K. Dharmar et al determined the genetic
identity of Plumbago zeylanica L. [54]
PCR Analysis and SSR Sequencing
PCR and SSR were useful in determining DNA
sequencing of Plumbago zeylanica L. [55]
Chromosomal
Identity
The
importance of karyomorphology in distinguishing plant species is well known. Karyomorphology
and chromosome number are useful in identification of closely related plant
species. No data on the karyomorphological details of the chromosomes in the
species of plumbago L is available.
There
is no unanimous agreement among researchers regarding the somatic chromosome
numbers in Plumbago zeylanica L. One
confusing finding of the earlier studies is that varying numbers of the somatic
chromosomes had been reported for the same species by different workers. Thus
Sanjappa and Sathyananda (1979) recorded 2n= 16 chromosomes for Plumbago zeylanica L. while earlier
Dahlgren (1964), Jha and Jim (1968), Jha and Jha (1968a) recorded 2n=28
chromosomes in the same species. [56]
The
size of metaphase chromosomes is extremely small. This can lead to errors in
counting the number of chromosomes. Hence the workers in Thailand feel that the
study of the chromosome numbers needs to be done from the microsporocyte in the
anther by collecting inflorescences between November and January. For Plumbago zeylanica L, 11 bivalent
chromosomes were found in the first meiotic metaphase. Thus workers from
International Society for Horticultural Science reported n=22 number of
chromosomes in Plumbago zeylanica L. [57],
[58]
M.
Pant et al reported chromosome number, 2n=24 in Plumbago zeylanica L. [59]
HPTLC Analysis
The
high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) fingerprinting provides a
chromatographic fingerprint of phytochemicals. It is suitable for confirming
the identity, purity and quantity of phytochemicals found in medicinal plants.
By using this method, Mohanty et al have determined the phytochemical identity
of Chitraka (Plumbago zeylanica).
[60]
Properties
and Pharmacology
Ayurvedic
properties
Ganas:
Charaka
Ganas:
Deepaneeya: Appetizer
Shoolaprashamana: Antispasmodic
Arshoghna: Relieves piles, fissures in ano
Lekhaneeya: Having Scraping power
Sushruta
Ganas:
Pippalyaadi
Mustaadi
Aamalakyaadi
Aaragvadhaadi
Varunaadi
Waagbhata
Ganas:
Pippalyaadi
Mustaadi
Aaragvadhaadi
Varunaadi
[61]
Rasa
(Taste): Katu (Acrid, Pungent), Tikta (Bitter)
Weerya/
Virya (Potency, Potent Energy): Ushna (Hot, Heating)
Wipaaka/Vipak
(Post Digestive Effect): Katu (Pungent)
This wipaaka tends to cause fissures in ano,
haemorrhoids (piles), irritation of the colon, rectum, anal canal
(proctocolitis).
Actions
on Srotasas (Actions on systems): Annawaha srotas
(Digestive system, Shukrawaha srotas (Male reproductive system), Aartaw-waha
srotas (Female reproductive System), Majjaawaha srotas (Bone marrow, Nervous
system) [62], [63]
Ayurvedic Actions
Guna
Laghu (Light), Ruksha/Rooksha (Drying, Desiccating),
Tikshna/ Teekshna (Penetrating)
Karma
Shothahara (Anti-inflammatory, Relieving edema),
Deepana (Appetizer), Paachana (Digestant, Digestive), Grahee (Constipating,
Astringent), Kapha-waata-hara (Relieves formation of phlegm, Antiflatulent),
Arshohara (Relieves hemorrhoids, fissures in ano), Shoolahara (Antispasmodic,
Anticolic) [64]
References:
[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbago
[2] http://www.planetayurveda.com/library/chitrak-plumbago-zeylanica
[3]
https://www.banyanbotanicals.com/info/blog-the-banyan-insight/details/getting-to-know-your-herbal-allies-chitrak
[5]
http:/www.planetayurveda.com/library/chitrak-plumbago-zeylanica
[6]
https://easyayurveda.com/2013/09/20/chitrak-plumbago-zeylanica-benefits-usage-doses-side-effects/
[7]
http://www.flowersofindia.net/catalog/slides/Chitrak.html
[8]
http://www.ayurveda.hu/api/API-Vol-1.pdf
[9]
http://medplants.blogspots.in/2012/05/plumbago- zeylanica-chitrak-chitramulam.html
[11]
http://ayurveda.alandiashram.org/ayurvedic-herbs/chitrak-plumbago-zeylanica
[12]
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/139806/10/
06_chapter%201.pdf
[15]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbago_zeylanica
[17]
http://ayurveda.alandiashram.org/ayurvedic-herbs/chitrak-plumbago-zeylanica
[18] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbago
[20]
http://www.ayurveda.hu./api/API-Vol-1.pdf
[21]
Manu Pant et al, Plumbago zeylanica L.: A mini Review, International Journal of
Pharmaceutical Applications, Volume 3, Issue 3, 2012, pp 399-405
[22]http://www.ayurveda.hu./api/API-Vol-1.pdf
[23]
http://vikaspedia.in/agriculture/crop-production/package-of-practices/medicinal-and-aromatic-plants/plumbago-zeylanica#section-3
[24]
Manu Pant et al, Plumbago zeylanica L.: A mini Review, International Journal of
Pharmaceutical Applications, Volume 3, Issue 3, 2012, pp 399-405
[25]
https://www.bimbima.com/ayurveda/medicinal-herb-chitrakplumbago-zeylanica/352/
[28]
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac/bitstream/10603/80180/8/ 08_chapter-3.pdf
[29]
Manu Pant et al, Plumbago zeylanica L.: A mini Review, International Journal of
Pharmaceutical Applications, Volume 3, Issue 3, 2012, pp 399-405
[30]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumbago
[31]
http://vikaspedia.in/agriculture/crop-production/package-of-practices/medicinal-and-aromatic-planta/plumbago-zeylonica#section-3
08_chapter-3.pdf
[33]
http://www.planetayurveda.com/library/cnitrak-plumbago-zeylonica
[34]
Manu Pant et al, Plumbago zeylanica L.: A mini Review, International Journal of
Pharmaceutical Applications, Volume 3, Issue 3, 2012, pp 399-405
[35]
http://vikaspedia.in/agriculture/crop-production/package-of-practices/medicinal-and-aromatic-planta/plumbago-zeylonica#section-3
08_chapter-3.pdf
[37]
http://www.planetayurveda.com/library/cnitrak-plumbago-zeylonica
08_chapter-3.pdf
[39]
https://easyayurveda.com/2013/09/20/chitrak-plumbago-zeylanica-benefits-usage-doses-side-effects/
[40]
Manu Pant et al, Plumbago zeylanica L.: A mini Review, International Journal of
Pharmaceutical Applications, Volume 3, Issue 3, 2012, pp 399-405
[41] http://www.ayurveda.hu/api/API-Vol-1.pdf
[43]
https://easyayurveda.com/2013/09/20/chitrak-plumbago-zylanica-benefits-usage-dose-side-effects/
[44]
http://ayurveda.alandiashram.org/ayurvedic-herbs/chitrak-plumbago-zeylanica
[45]
National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, No. 155-1, sec 2, Li-Nung
Street, Shih-Pai, 112, Taipei, Taiwan
[46]
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/139804/10/
06_chapter%201.pdf
[48]
S. Ariyananthan et al, Quality control standards for roots of three Plumbago species, Indian J Pharm Sci.
2010 Jan-Feb; 72(1):86-91
[49]
S. Ariyananthan et al, Quality control standards for roots of three Plumbago species, Indian J Pharm Sci.
2010 Jan-Feb; 72(1):86-91
[50] S.
Ariyananthan et al, Quality control standards for roots of three Plumbago species, Indian J Pharm Sci.
2010 Jan-Feb; 72(1):86-91
[51] S.
Ariyananthan et al, Quality control standards for roots of three Plumbago species, Indian J Pharm Sci.
2010 Jan-Feb; 72(1):86-91
[52] S.
Ariyananthan et al, Quality control standards for roots of three Plumbago species, Indian J Pharm Sci.
2010 Jan-Feb; 72(1):86-91
[53] Prashant J Gadge and Varsha N
Nathar, Detection and analysis of genetic variations in species of Plumbago L using RAPD markers, Indian
Journal of Biotechnology, Volume 13, 2014, pp 140-143
[54] K. Dharmar et al, Analysis of
Genetic Diversity of Plumbago zeylanica L,
ScieXplore: International Journal of Research in Science,Volume 2(1), 19-22,
January-June 2015
[57]
Indananda C Chromosome Numbers of Thai Herbs in the Plumbago, http://www.actahort.org/books/675/675_27.htm
[58] Indananda C 2005, Chromosome
Numbers of Thai Herbs in the Plumbago,
Acta Hortic, 675, 187-189
[59] Manu Pant et al, Plumbago
zeylanica: A Mini Review, International Jornal of Pharmaceutical Applications,
Volume 3, Issue 3, 2012, pp. 399-405
[60] I. C. Mohanty et al, Development of
phytochemical fingerprint of an Indian medicinal plant Chitrak (Plumbago
zeylanica L)using high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC), Journal
of Medicinal Plant Research, Vol. 8(18), pp. 669-685, 10 May, 2014.
[61]
https://easyayurveda.com/2013/09/20/chitrak-plumbago-zeylanica-benefits-usage-dose-side-effects/
[62]
http://ayurveda.alandiashram.org/ayurvedic-herbs/chitrak-plumbago-zeylanica
[63]
https://easyayurveda.com/2013/09/20/chitrak-plumbago-zeylanica-benefits-usage-dose-side-effects/
[64]
http://www.aimilpharmaceuticals.com/herbs/chitraka/
[65]
https://www.nhp.gov.in/chitraka_mtl
[66]
http://www.science20.com/Humboldt_fellow_and_science/
blog/ethnobotanical_studies_medicinal_plant_chitrak-87905
[67]
https://easyayurveda.com/2013/09/20/chitrak-plumbago-zeylanica-benefits-usage-dose-side-effects/
[67]
http://www.ayurveda.hu/api/API-Vol-1.pdf
Comments